Wallace's golden birdwing

What is Wallace's golden birdwing?

Wallace's golden birdwing (Ornithoptera croesus) is a large butterfly of the swallowtail family, Papilionidae, whose male is orange-gold and which lives only in North Maluku. Alfred Russel Wallace found it on Bacan Island and named it in 1859.

The IUCN Red Data Book text, republished by the Swallowtail & Birdwing Butterfly Trust, gives wingspans of 130–150 mm for males and 160–190 mm for females. The male's forewing is very dark brown with a shining orange band, and the hindwing is orange with golden-yellow patches. The female of the Bacan subspecies is brown with white markings. The male's golden-yellow colour is described as unique among birdwings.

Evidence: Swallowtail & Birdwing Butterfly Trust — Wallace's golden birdwing: Ornithoptera croesus ↗ · Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie (2022), Trade and threats on Ornithoptera croesus in North Maluku, Indonesia ↗

Where does Wallace's golden birdwing live?

Wallace's golden birdwing lives only in North Maluku, on the islands of Bacan, Halmahera and Morotai. Each island has its own subspecies: O. c. croesus on Bacan, O. c. lydius on Halmahera and O. c. toeantei on Morotai. Some authors also recognise subspecies from Kasiruta and Mandioli.

According to Peggie (2022), it is very likely extinct on Ternate after Mount Gamalama erupted in 1983. On Bacan it lives in natural forest in the Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve and has been recorded from 20 to 800 metres above sea level.

Evidence: Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie (2022), Trade and threats on Ornithoptera croesus in North Maluku, Indonesia ↗ · Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie et al. (2021), Assessing an in-situ semi-natural breeding approach for Ornithoptera croesus on Bacan Island ↗

What does Wallace's golden birdwing eat?

The caterpillars of Wallace's golden birdwing eat the leaves of Aristolochia and Pararistolochia vines, while adults feed on flower nectar. In the Gunung Sibela forest, researchers found Pararistolochia as the natural larval food plant, and older records also list Aristolochia gaudichaudii. At a breeding site in Labuha, Bacan, caterpillars preferred Aristolochia acuminata.

Adults mainly visit Mussaenda, which has large white petal-like calyx lobes, while nearby Hibiscus flowers were ignored. Like other swallowtails, it keeps its wings moving while it feeds.

Evidence: Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie et al. (2021), Assessing an in-situ semi-natural breeding approach for Ornithoptera croesus on Bacan Island ↗ · Swallowtail & Birdwing Butterfly Trust — Wallace's golden birdwing: Ornithoptera croesus ↗

How does Wallace's golden birdwing behave?

Wallace's golden birdwing is a strong, long-range flyer that ranges over wide areas of forest and is seldom seen. In surveys at Gunung Sibela in 2018 and 2019, researchers saw only two to four individuals each time.

At a breeding site on Bacan the butterflies were active by about 08:30, and males met females while feeding at flowers. Females lay eggs on the larval food plants, and the caterpillars pass through five instars before pupating. Because it needs a large area to fly, the species depends on extensive natural forest.

Evidence: Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie et al. (2021), Assessing an in-situ semi-natural breeding approach for Ornithoptera croesus on Bacan Island ↗ · Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie (2022), Trade and threats on Ornithoptera croesus in North Maluku, Indonesia ↗

Why is Wallace's golden birdwing threatened?

Wallace's golden birdwing is threatened by forest loss and strong demand from collectors. Peggie (2022) saw trees being cut in logging concessions and on the lower slopes of the Gunung Sibela Nature Reserve, and notes possible illegal direct capture.

The species is listed on CITES Appendix II. CITES trade data show Indonesia exporting thousands of specimens a year in 2011–2016, including 6,113 reported by the exporter in 2011. Because of confusion over the source codes used, Indonesian authorities voluntarily suspended its trade in 2017. The IUCN assessed it as Near Threatened in 2018.

Evidence: Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie (2022), Trade and threats on Ornithoptera croesus in North Maluku, Indonesia ↗ · Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie et al. (2021), Assessing an in-situ semi-natural breeding approach for Ornithoptera croesus on Bacan Island ↗

How can Wallace's golden birdwing be protected?

Wallace's golden birdwing is protected under Indonesian regulation P.106/2018, so direct collection from the wild is prohibited and trade can be allowed only for specimens from captive breeding. Since 2013 a semi-natural breeding site at Labuha, Bacan, has grown hundreds of food and nectar plants so that wild butterflies come to lay eggs. Some of the adults raised there are released back to the wild.

Researchers stress that North Maluku's remaining forests must be protected. People can help by not catching these butterflies and by not buying specimens without official documents.

Evidence: JDIH Kemenko Infrastruktur — Permen LHK P.106/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/12/2018 (lampiran jenis satwa dilindungi) ↗ · Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie (2022), Trade and threats on Ornithoptera croesus in North Maluku, Indonesia ↗ · Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie et al. (2021), Assessing an in-situ semi-natural breeding approach for Ornithoptera croesus on Bacan Island ↗

Explore related habitats

These habitat relationships are supported by species sources in this guide. This is not a complete range map.

Sources & references

1. Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie et al. (2021), Assessing an in-situ semi-natural breeding approach for Ornithoptera croesus on Bacan Island ↗
2. Treubia (BRIN) — Peggie (2022), Trade and threats on Ornithoptera croesus in North Maluku, Indonesia ↗
3. Swallowtail & Birdwing Butterfly Trust — Wallace's golden birdwing: Ornithoptera croesus ↗
4. JDIH Kemenko Infrastruktur — Permen LHK P.106/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/12/2018 (lampiran jenis satwa dilindungi) ↗
5. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, version 2026-1, via GBIF (CC BY 4.0) ↗

References can change. Check dates and context in the original source.

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